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household consumes approximately 60% more energy
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Scripts and behaviour steering, based on providing
than a two-person household (Roberts, 2008).
products with ‘scripts’ or directions on how they
Secondly, despite that a common way for a user to re-
should be used.
duce energy consumption is by changing to more energy-efficient products, this does not necessarily result in
lower energy consumption; on the contrary, it can give
rise to a rebound effect in which the money that consumers save on energy-efficient products can instead
lead to increased usage or be spent on other products
and services (Herring and Roy, 2007). An interesting
finding from a press release of a report published by
the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission
in 2007 was that “as older equipment is updated in a
household, it is still often transferred to other parts of
the home instead of being replaced, thereby contributing to greater electricity consumption”.
8. Design for behavioural
changes
Technical and educational measures may not be suf-
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Intelligent products and systems, based on products having more control over its functioning.
In a further developed model, Bharma et al (2008)
define seven different design strategies. The authors
have categorised the strategies according to three elements considered important for behavioural change:
intention, habits and control (see Fig. 6). These strategies have different levels of power in decision-making
between the user and product. In the strategies that
are categorised under ‘intention’, the power lies more
in the hands of the user, whereas in the strategies that
are categorised under ‘control’, the power to create a
behavioural change lies more with the product itself.
8.1 Three elements of behavioural change
The three defined elements of behavioural change will
be described below.
ficient to achieve significant energy reduction given
the previously described limitations. This knowledge
8.1.1 Intentions
confirms what was suggested in the introduction, that
Intentions are affected by attitudinal, social and affec-
product-led interventions may be an alternative way to
tive factors (Bhamra et al, 2008).
reducing the energy impact in the usage phase of prod-
Attitudinal factors. Attitude refers to the sometimes
ucts, and will thus from hereon be the focus of this the-
evaluative behaviour or outlook upon which a user may
sis. In the words of Bhamra et al (2008, p.2): ‘Products,
have on an object (Moore, 2001 in Faiers et al, 2007).
as the interface between consumers and consumption
In the model of Bharma et al (2008), the factors have
activities, can give immediate and direct responses to
been determined as the level of knowledge or the be-
users’ operations: how it is perceived, learned, and
liefs that a user holds. These factors influence the way
used. Designing a product means designing a user ex-
which a user may understand an issue or product and
perience with the product, which also determines the
how a user will act or be motivated to act. The level of
compound impacts of this experience’.
knowledge can in turn be affected by income, educa-
Within product-led interventions, Lilley et al (2005) dis-
tion, cultural background, geographical context, etc.
tinguish between three potential approaches:
Social factors. Social factors influencing a user’s inten-
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Eco-feedback, based on informing users of the impact of their behaviour.
tion include norms, roles and self-concept. Norms can
refer to what a user may perceive as normal or ought to
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